𝙲𝚁𝚄𝙲𝙴𝚁𝙾: 𝟺𝟻3 𝙰ñ𝚘𝚜 𝚍𝚎 𝙷𝚒𝚜𝚝𝚘𝚛𝚒𝚊

𝙀𝙨𝙘𝙧𝙞𝙗𝙚: 𝙇𝙞𝙘. 𝙎𝙖𝙗𝙞𝙣𝙤 𝘼𝙥𝙖𝙯𝙖 𝘾𝙤𝙮𝙡𝙖 – 𝙋𝙚𝙧𝙞𝙤𝙙𝙞𝙨𝙩𝙖

𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰 𝘦𝘮𝘦𝘳𝘨𝘦 𝘴𝘶𝘴 𝘪𝘯𝘪𝘤𝘪𝘰𝘴 𝘥𝘶𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘭𝘢 é𝘱𝘰𝘤𝘢 𝘤𝘰𝘭𝘰𝘯𝘪𝘢𝘭 𝘥𝘰𝘯𝘥𝘦 𝘶𝘯 𝘨𝘳𝘶𝘱𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘱𝘦𝘳𝘦𝘨𝘳𝘪𝘯𝘰𝘴 𝘱𝘢𝘴𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘯 𝘺 𝘭𝘭𝘦𝘷𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘯 𝘦𝘯 𝘩𝘰𝘮𝘣𝘳𝘰𝘴 𝘭𝘢 𝘱𝘦𝘴𝘢𝘥𝘢 𝘪𝘮𝘢𝘨𝘦𝘯 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘝𝘪𝘳𝘨𝘦𝘯 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘙𝘰𝘴𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘰 𝘩𝘢𝘤𝘪𝘢 𝘶𝘯𝘢 𝘧𝘭𝘰𝘳𝘦𝘤𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘭𝘰𝘤𝘢𝘭𝘪𝘥𝘢𝘥 𝘥𝘦 𝘚𝘢𝘯 𝘑𝘶𝘢𝘯 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘖𝘳𝘰.

𝘌𝘭 𝘤𝘢𝘯𝘴𝘢𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘰 𝘺 𝘭𝘢 𝘱𝘦𝘴𝘢𝘥𝘦𝘻 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘤𝘢𝘮𝘪𝘯𝘰 𝘥𝘦𝘤𝘪𝘥𝘪𝘦𝘳𝘰𝘯 𝘥𝘦𝘴𝘤𝘢𝘯𝘴𝘢𝘳 𝘱𝘰𝘳 𝘦𝘴𝘵𝘦 𝘭𝘶𝘨𝘢𝘳. 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰 𝘧𝘶𝘦 𝘶𝘯 𝘱𝘢𝘴𝘰 𝘰𝘣𝘭𝘪𝘨𝘢𝘥𝘰 𝘱𝘢𝘳𝘢 𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘷𝘪𝘢𝘫𝘦𝘳𝘰𝘴 𝘥𝘶𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘤𝘰𝘯𝘲𝘶𝘪𝘴𝘵𝘢, 𝘱𝘳𝘰𝘷𝘦𝘯𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘦𝘴 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘐𝘯𝘵𝘦𝘯𝘥𝘦𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘗𝘶𝘯𝘰 𝘺 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘐𝘮𝘱𝘦𝘳𝘪𝘰 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘛𝘢𝘸𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘪𝘯𝘴𝘶𝘺𝘰. 𝘋𝘶𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘤𝘰𝘯𝘲𝘶𝘪𝘴𝘵𝘢 𝘦𝘴𝘱𝘢ñ𝘰𝘭𝘢, 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢 𝘧𝘶𝘦 𝘥𝘦𝘴𝘤𝘶𝘣𝘪𝘦𝘳𝘵𝘢 𝘦𝘯 𝘦𝘭 𝘢ñ𝘰 𝘥𝘦1538 𝘱𝘰𝘳 𝘗𝘦𝘥𝘳𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘢𝘯𝘥í𝘢, 𝘶𝘯𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘵𝘳𝘦𝘤𝘦 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘐𝘴𝘭𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘎𝘢𝘭𝘭𝘰 𝘲𝘶𝘪𝘦𝘯 𝘴𝘦 𝘪𝘯𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘯ó 𝘦𝘯 𝘦𝘴𝘵𝘢𝘴 𝘳𝘦𝘨𝘪𝘰𝘯𝘦𝘴 𝘦𝘭 𝘣𝘶𝘴𝘤𝘢 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘮𝘦𝘵𝘢𝘭 𝘥𝘰𝘳𝘢𝘥𝘰.

𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰 𝘴𝘦 𝘶𝘣𝘪𝘤𝘢𝘣𝘢 𝘥𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘰 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘷𝘢𝘴𝘵𝘰 𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘳𝘪𝘵𝘰𝘳𝘪𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢 𝘲𝘶𝘦 𝘭𝘭𝘦𝘨𝘢𝘣𝘢 𝘩𝘢𝘴𝘵𝘢 𝘩𝘰𝘺 𝘉𝘰𝘭𝘪𝘷𝘪𝘢. 𝘗𝘰𝘴𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘪𝘰𝘳𝘮𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘝 𝘧𝘳𝘢𝘤𝘤𝘪𝘰𝘯𝘰 𝘦𝘭 𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘳𝘪𝘵𝘰𝘳𝘪𝘰 𝘦𝘯 𝘥𝘰𝘴 𝘨𝘰𝘣𝘦𝘳𝘯𝘢𝘤𝘪𝘰𝘯𝘦𝘴, 𝘥𝘰𝘯𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰 𝘗𝘦𝘳𝘵𝘦𝘯𝘦𝘤í𝘢 𝘢 𝘭𝘢 𝘨𝘰𝘣𝘦𝘳𝘯𝘢𝘤𝘪ó𝘯 𝘥𝘦 𝘛𝘰𝘭𝘦𝘥𝘰 𝘲𝘶𝘦 𝘦𝘳𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘋𝘪𝘦𝘨𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘈𝘭𝘮𝘢𝘨𝘳𝘰. 𝘌𝘯 𝘦𝘭 𝘵𝘪𝘦𝘮𝘱𝘰 𝘤𝘰𝘭𝘰𝘯𝘪𝘢𝘭. 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰 𝘱𝘦𝘳𝘵𝘦𝘯𝘦𝘤í𝘢 𝘢𝘭 𝘤𝘰𝘳𝘳𝘦𝘨𝘪𝘮𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢, 𝘤𝘰𝘯𝘧𝘰𝘳𝘮𝘢𝘥𝘰 𝘱𝘰𝘳 𝘚𝘢𝘯 𝘑𝘶𝘢𝘯 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘖𝘳𝘰 (𝘊𝘢𝘱𝘪𝘵𝘢𝘭 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘤𝘰𝘳𝘳𝘦𝘨𝘪𝘮𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘰), 𝘧𝘶𝘯𝘥𝘢𝘥𝘰 𝘱𝘰𝘳 𝘏𝘦𝘳𝘯á𝘯𝘥𝘦𝘻 𝘥𝘦 𝘎𝘪𝘳ó𝘯 𝘦𝘯 𝘦𝘭 𝘢ñ𝘰 𝘥𝘦 1549; 𝘢 𝘦𝘭𝘭𝘰 𝘱𝘦𝘳𝘵𝘦𝘯𝘦𝘤í𝘢𝘯 𝘚𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘪𝘢𝘨𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘚𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘪𝘢, 𝘚𝘢𝘯 𝘔𝘪𝘨𝘶𝘦𝘭 𝘥𝘦 𝘗𝘩𝘢𝘳𝘢, 𝘈𝘺𝘢𝘱𝘢𝘵𝘢 𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘦 𝘰𝘵𝘳𝘰𝘴.

𝘋𝘰𝘯𝘥𝘦 𝘥𝘦𝘱𝘦𝘯𝘥í𝘢𝘯 𝘱𝘰𝘭í𝘵𝘪𝘤𝘢𝘮𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘈𝘶𝘥𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘩𝘢𝘳𝘤𝘢𝘴 𝘺 𝘳𝘦𝘭𝘪𝘨𝘪𝘰𝘴𝘢𝘮𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘢𝘭 𝘖𝘣𝘪𝘴𝘱𝘢𝘥𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘶𝘴𝘤𝘰. 𝘜𝘯 26 𝘥𝘦 𝘮𝘢𝘺𝘰 𝘥𝘦 1573, 𝘦𝘯 𝘔𝘢𝘥𝘳𝘪𝘥 – 𝘌𝘴𝘱𝘢ñ𝘢. 𝘚𝘦 𝘩𝘪𝘻𝘰 𝘭𝘢 𝘯𝘶𝘦𝘷𝘢 𝘥𝘦𝘮𝘢𝘳𝘤𝘢𝘤𝘪ó𝘯, 𝘳𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘧𝘪𝘤á𝘯𝘥𝘰𝘴𝘦 𝘢 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢 𝘪𝘯𝘵𝘦𝘨𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘈𝘶𝘥𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘩𝘢𝘳𝘤𝘢𝘴; 𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘴 𝘭𝘢 𝘥𝘦𝘴𝘢𝘱𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘤𝘪ó𝘯 𝘥𝘦 𝘚𝘢𝘯 𝘑𝘶𝘢𝘯 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘖𝘳𝘰. 𝘓𝘢 𝘤𝘢𝘱𝘪𝘵𝘢𝘭 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘤𝘰𝘳𝘳𝘦𝘨𝘪𝘮𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘰 𝘧𝘶𝘦 𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘴𝘭𝘢𝘥𝘢𝘥𝘰 𝘢𝘭 𝘴𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘶𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘙𝘰𝘴𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰.

𝘗𝘰𝘳 𝘦𝘴𝘦 𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘰𝘯𝘤𝘦𝘴 𝘦𝘳𝘢 𝘶𝘯𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘱𝘶𝘦𝘣𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘲𝘶𝘦 𝘴𝘦 𝘶𝘣𝘪𝘤ó 𝘦𝘯 𝘭𝘢 𝘱𝘢𝘳𝘵𝘦 𝘤𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘭 𝘺 𝘮𝘦𝘳𝘪𝘥𝘪𝘰𝘯𝘢𝘭 𝘥𝘦 𝘵𝘰𝘥𝘰 𝘦𝘴𝘦 𝘷𝘢𝘴𝘵í𝘴𝘪𝘮𝘰 𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘳𝘪𝘵𝘰𝘳𝘪𝘰; 𝘱𝘶𝘦𝘴 𝘦𝘳𝘢 𝘦𝘭 𝘭𝘶𝘨𝘢𝘳 𝘱𝘰𝘳 𝘦𝘭 𝘲𝘶𝘦 𝘴𝘦 𝘢𝘤𝘤𝘦𝘥í𝘢 𝘥𝘦𝘴𝘥𝘦 𝘈𝘻á𝘯𝘨𝘢𝘳𝘰 𝘩𝘢𝘤𝘪𝘢 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢, 𝘤𝘰𝘯𝘴𝘵𝘪𝘵𝘶í𝘢 𝘭𝘢 𝘱𝘶𝘦𝘳𝘵𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘥𝘢 𝘱𝘰𝘳 𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘰𝘯𝘰𝘮𝘢𝘴𝘪𝘢 𝘢 𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘷é𝘴 𝘥𝘦 𝘦𝘴𝘦 𝘤𝘢𝘮𝘪𝘯𝘰 𝘤𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘭, 𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘰𝘵𝘳𝘰𝘴 𝘥𝘦 𝘴𝘶𝘳 𝘢 𝘯𝘰𝘳𝘵𝘦. 𝘜𝘯𝘰 𝘱𝘰𝘳 𝘕𝘶ñ𝘰𝘢 𝘴𝘦 𝘣𝘪𝘧𝘶𝘳𝘤𝘢𝘣𝘢 𝘩𝘢𝘤𝘪𝘢 𝘊𝘰𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘪 𝘺 𝘔𝘢𝘤𝘶𝘴𝘢𝘯𝘪, 𝘱𝘢𝘳𝘢 𝘪𝘯𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘯𝘢𝘳𝘴𝘦 𝘱𝘰𝘳 𝘢𝘮𝘣𝘰𝘴 𝘭𝘶𝘨𝘢𝘳𝘦𝘴 𝘩𝘢𝘤𝘪𝘢 𝘭𝘢 𝘤𝘦𝘫𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘴𝘦𝘭𝘷𝘢. 𝘋𝘦 𝘢𝘩í 𝘲𝘶𝘦 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰 𝘱𝘳𝘰𝘷𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘦 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘵é𝘳𝘮𝘪𝘯𝘰 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦 𝘰 𝘤𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘴, 𝘲𝘶𝘦 𝘴𝘪𝘨𝘯𝘪𝘧𝘪𝘤𝘢 “𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘢𝘮𝘪𝘯𝘰𝘴”.

𝘜𝘯 𝘭𝘶𝘨𝘢𝘳 𝘧𝘭𝘶𝘪𝘥𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘴𝘪𝘵𝘰 𝘥𝘦𝘣𝘪𝘥𝘰 𝘢 𝘭𝘢𝘴 𝘢𝘤𝘵𝘪𝘷𝘪𝘥𝘢𝘥𝘦𝘴 𝘮𝘪𝘯𝘦𝘳𝘢𝘴 𝘥𝘦 𝘴𝘶𝘳 𝘢 𝘯𝘰𝘳𝘵𝘦 𝘺 𝘥𝘦 𝘦𝘴𝘵𝘦 𝘢 𝘰𝘦𝘴𝘵𝘦 𝘥𝘦𝘴𝘥𝘦 𝘛𝘶𝘤𝘶𝘮á𝘯 (𝘈𝘳𝘨𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘪𝘯𝘢), 𝘱𝘢𝘴𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘰 𝘱𝘰𝘳 𝘗𝘶𝘯𝘰, 𝘭𝘢𝘴 𝘮𝘪𝘯𝘢𝘴 𝘢𝘶𝘳í𝘧𝘦𝘳𝘢𝘴 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘴𝘦𝘭𝘷𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢 𝘺 𝘚𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘪𝘢 𝘤𝘰𝘮𝘰 𝘚𝘢𝘯 𝘔𝘪𝘨𝘶𝘦𝘭 𝘥𝘦 𝘈𝘱𝘰𝘳𝘰𝘮𝘢; 𝘦𝘭 𝘰𝘵𝘳𝘰 𝘦𝘳𝘢 𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘦 𝘦𝘭 𝘱𝘶𝘦𝘳𝘵𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘢𝘭𝘭𝘢𝘰 (𝘓𝘪𝘮𝘢), 𝘱𝘢𝘴𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘰 𝘱𝘰𝘳 𝘊𝘶𝘴𝘤𝘰 𝘺 𝘭𝘢 𝘍𝘢𝘮𝘰𝘴𝘢𝘴 𝘮𝘪𝘯𝘢𝘴 𝘥𝘦 𝘱𝘭𝘢𝘵𝘢 𝘦𝘯 𝘗𝘰𝘵𝘰𝘴í – 𝘉𝘰𝘭𝘪𝘷𝘪𝘢. 𝘌𝘭 12 𝘥𝘦 𝘢𝘨𝘰𝘴𝘵𝘰 𝘥𝘦 1776 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰 𝘫𝘶𝘯𝘵𝘢𝘮𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘤𝘰𝘯 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢 𝘱𝘢𝘴𝘢 𝘢 𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘥𝘰𝘮𝘪𝘯𝘪𝘰𝘴 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘝𝘪𝘳𝘳𝘦𝘪𝘯𝘢𝘵𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘉𝘶𝘦𝘯𝘰𝘴 𝘈𝘪𝘳𝘦𝘴 (𝘈𝘳𝘨𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘪𝘯𝘢); 𝘱𝘰𝘴𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘪𝘰𝘳𝘮𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘦𝘭 𝘳𝘦𝘺 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘐𝘝 𝘱𝘰𝘳 𝘊𝘦𝘥𝘶𝘭𝘢𝘳 𝘙𝘦𝘢𝘭 𝘪𝘯𝘤𝘰𝘳𝘱𝘰𝘳𝘢 𝘢 𝘭𝘢 𝘈𝘶𝘥𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘓𝘪𝘮𝘢. 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢 𝘦𝘴𝘵𝘶𝘷𝘰 𝘪𝘯𝘮𝘦𝘳𝘴𝘰 𝘥𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘱𝘳𝘰𝘤𝘦𝘴𝘰𝘴 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘦𝘮𝘢𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘱𝘢𝘤𝘪ó𝘯 𝘱𝘦𝘳𝘶𝘢𝘯𝘢.

𝘌𝘴 𝘢𝘴í 𝘲𝘶𝘦 𝘴𝘦 𝘥𝘪𝘰 𝘶𝘯𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘢𝘴 𝘱𝘳𝘪𝘮𝘦𝘳𝘢𝘴 𝘪𝘯𝘨𝘦𝘴𝘵𝘢𝘴 𝘳𝘦𝘷𝘰𝘭𝘶𝘤𝘪𝘰𝘯𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘢𝘴 𝘥𝘦 1729; 𝘩𝘶𝘺𝘦𝘯𝘥𝘰 𝘢𝘴í 𝘦𝘭 𝘤𝘰𝘳𝘳𝘦𝘨𝘪𝘥𝘰𝘳 𝘈𝘯𝘵𝘰𝘯𝘪𝘰 𝘕𝘢𝘳𝘦𝘻𝘰 𝘺 𝘍𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘤𝘰 𝘙𝘪𝘯𝘢𝘭𝘥𝘪. 𝘍𝘪𝘯𝘢𝘭𝘮𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘧𝘶𝘦 𝘢𝘱𝘢𝘣𝘶𝘭𝘭𝘢𝘥𝘰 𝘱𝘰𝘳 28° 𝘷𝘪𝘳𝘳𝘦𝘺 𝘑𝘰𝘴é 𝘥𝘦 𝘈𝘳𝘮𝘦𝘯𝘥á𝘳𝘪𝘻 𝘦𝘯 𝘭𝘢 𝘱𝘭𝘢𝘻𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘈𝘺𝘢𝘱𝘢𝘵𝘢 𝘥𝘦𝘫𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘰 𝘶𝘯 𝘦𝘴𝘵𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘢𝘳𝘵𝘦 𝘯𝘦𝘨𝘳𝘰; 𝘴í𝘮𝘣𝘰𝘭𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘮𝘶𝘦𝘳𝘵𝘦. 𝘌𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘦 𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘨𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘦𝘴 𝘱𝘦𝘳𝘴𝘰𝘯𝘢𝘫𝘦𝘴 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢í𝘯𝘰𝘴 𝘧𝘪𝘨𝘶𝘳𝘢𝘯 𝘑𝘶𝘢𝘯 𝘚𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘰𝘴 𝘈𝘵𝘢𝘩𝘶𝘢𝘭𝘱𝘢, 𝘍𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘴𝘤𝘰 𝘐𝘲𝘶𝘪𝘴𝘦, 𝘐𝘴𝘪𝘥𝘳𝘰 𝘠𝘶𝘯𝘨𝘢𝘯𝘪𝘯𝘢, 𝘈𝘯𝘵𝘰𝘯𝘪𝘰 𝘊𝘤𝘢𝘮𝘢𝘲𝘲𝘦 𝘺 𝘈𝘯𝘥𝘳é𝘴 𝘐𝘯𝘨𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘤𝘰𝘯𝘢. 𝘋𝘶𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘭𝘢 é𝘱𝘰𝘤𝘢 𝘳𝘦𝘱𝘶𝘣𝘭𝘪𝘤𝘢𝘯𝘢 𝘦𝘯 𝘦𝘭 𝘗𝘦𝘳ú. 𝘶𝘯 21 𝘥𝘦 𝘫𝘶𝘯𝘪𝘰 𝘥𝘦 1825, 𝘋𝘰𝘯 𝘚𝘪𝘮𝘰𝘯 𝘉𝘰𝘭𝘪𝘷𝘢𝘳 𝘱𝘰𝘳 𝘋𝘦𝘤𝘳𝘦𝘵𝘰 𝘓𝘦𝘨𝘪𝘴𝘵𝘢𝘭𝘪𝘵𝘷𝘰. 𝘈𝘤𝘵𝘶𝘢𝘭𝘪𝘻𝘢 𝘢 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢 𝘤𝘰𝘮𝘰 𝘱𝘳𝘰𝘷𝘪𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘗𝘶𝘯𝘰 𝘤𝘰𝘯 𝘴𝘶 𝘤𝘢𝘱𝘪𝘵𝘢𝘭 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰.

𝘔𝘰𝘥𝘪𝘧𝘪𝘤𝘢𝘥𝘰 𝘺 𝘈𝘤𝘵𝘶𝘢𝘭𝘪𝘻𝘢𝘥𝘰 𝘦𝘯 𝘦𝘭 𝘋𝘦𝘤𝘳𝘦𝘵𝘰 𝘚𝘶𝘱𝘳𝘦𝘮𝘰 𝘥𝘦𝘭 2 𝘥𝘦 𝘮𝘢𝘺𝘰 𝘥𝘦 1854. 𝘈𝘳𝘵. 2 𝘥𝘶𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘦𝘭 𝘨𝘰𝘣𝘪𝘦𝘳𝘯𝘰 𝘱𝘳𝘰𝘷𝘪𝘴𝘪𝘰𝘯𝘢𝘭 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘔𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘴𝘤𝘢𝘭 𝘙𝘢𝘮ó𝘯 𝘊𝘢𝘴𝘵𝘪𝘭𝘭𝘢 𝘺 𝘔𝘢𝘳𝘲𝘶𝘦𝘴𝘢𝘥𝘰. 𝘌𝘭 5 𝘥𝘦 𝘧𝘦𝘣𝘳𝘦𝘳𝘰 𝘥𝘦 1875. 𝘋𝘶𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘦𝘭 𝘎𝘰𝘣𝘪𝘦𝘳𝘯𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘔𝘢𝘯𝘶𝘦𝘭 𝘗𝘢𝘳𝘥𝘰 𝘺 𝘓𝘢𝘷𝘢𝘭𝘭𝘦, 𝘴𝘦 𝘱𝘳𝘰𝘮𝘶𝘭𝘨𝘰 𝘶𝘯 𝘓𝘢𝘺 𝘲𝘶𝘦 𝘥𝘪𝘷𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘱𝘳𝘰𝘷𝘪𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢 𝘦𝘯 𝘥𝘰𝘴 𝘱𝘳𝘰𝘷𝘪𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘢𝘴: 𝘚𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘪𝘢 𝘤𝘰𝘯 𝘴𝘶 𝘤𝘢𝘱𝘪𝘵𝘢𝘭 𝘚𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘪𝘢 𝘺 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢 𝘤𝘰𝘯 𝘴𝘶 𝘤𝘢𝘱𝘪𝘵𝘢𝘭 𝘔𝘢𝘤𝘶𝘴𝘢𝘯𝘪. 𝘘𝘶𝘦𝘥𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘰 𝘳𝘦𝘭𝘦𝘨𝘢𝘥𝘰 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰 𝘤𝘰𝘮𝘰 𝘥𝘪𝘴𝘵𝘳𝘪𝘵𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘱𝘳𝘰𝘷𝘪𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢. 𝘊𝘈𝘙𝘈𝘉𝘈𝘠𝘈 𝘤𝘰𝘯 𝘯𝘶𝘦𝘷𝘦 𝘥𝘪𝘴𝘵𝘳𝘪𝘵𝘰𝘴: 𝘔𝘢𝘤𝘶𝘴𝘢𝘯𝘪, 𝘈𝘺𝘢𝘱𝘢𝘵𝘢, 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰, 𝘊𝘰𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘪, 𝘖𝘭𝘭𝘢𝘤𝘩𝘦𝘢, 𝘊𝘰𝘢𝘻𝘢, 𝘜𝘴𝘪𝘤𝘢𝘺𝘰𝘴, 𝘐𝘵𝘶𝘢𝘵𝘢 𝘺 𝘈𝘫𝘰𝘺𝘢𝘯𝘪. 𝘈𝘳𝘵.3° 𝘚𝘈𝘕𝘋𝘐𝘈 𝘤𝘰𝘯 7 𝘋𝘪𝘴𝘵𝘳𝘪𝘵𝘰𝘴: 𝘗𝘩𝘢𝘳𝘢, 𝘗𝘢𝘵𝘢𝘮𝘣𝘶𝘤𝘰, 𝘚𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘪𝘢, 𝘊𝘶𝘺𝘰 𝘊𝘶𝘺𝘰, 𝘚𝘪𝘯𝘢, 𝘘𝘶𝘪𝘢𝘤𝘢 𝘺 𝘗𝘩𝘰𝘵𝘰. 𝘋𝘶𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘢ñ𝘰𝘴 𝘥𝘦 1990, 𝘦𝘹𝘪𝘴𝘵𝘪ó 𝘭𝘢 𝘪𝘯𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘳𝘰𝘨𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘥𝘦 𝘱𝘳𝘦𝘨𝘶𝘯𝘵𝘢𝘳𝘴𝘦 𝘦𝘯 𝘲𝘶é 𝘧𝘦𝘤𝘩𝘢 𝘦𝘴 𝘦𝘭 𝘢𝘯𝘪𝘷𝘦𝘳𝘴𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰. 𝘱𝘰𝘳que 𝘷𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘰𝘴 𝘥𝘪𝘴𝘵𝘳𝘪𝘵𝘰𝘴 𝘺𝘢 𝘤𝘦𝘭𝘦𝘣𝘳𝘢𝘳𝘰𝘯 𝘢 𝘭𝘰 𝘨𝘳𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘦 𝘦𝘭 2 𝘥𝘦 𝘮𝘢𝘺𝘰. 𝘈𝘩í 𝘴𝘶𝘳𝘨𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘪𝘯𝘪𝘤𝘪𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘷𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘴𝘶𝘴 𝘤𝘪𝘶𝘥𝘢𝘥𝘢𝘯𝘰𝘴 𝘲𝘶𝘦 𝘩𝘪𝘤𝘪𝘦𝘳𝘰𝘯 𝘶𝘯𝘢 𝘪𝘯𝘷𝘦𝘴𝘵𝘪𝘨𝘢𝘤𝘪ó𝘯 𝘱𝘳𝘦𝘷𝘪𝘢 𝘣𝘶𝘴𝘤𝘢𝘯𝘥𝘰 𝘷𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘰𝘴 𝘢𝘳𝘤𝘩𝘪𝘷𝘰𝘴 𝘦𝘯 𝘭𝘢 𝘤𝘪𝘶𝘥𝘢𝘥 𝘥𝘦 𝘗𝘶𝘯𝘰 𝘺 𝘰𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘴 𝘧𝘶𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘦𝘴 𝘥𝘦 𝘪𝘯𝘧𝘰𝘳𝘮𝘢𝘤𝘪ó𝘯.

𝘋𝘰𝘯𝘥𝘦 𝘦𝘯𝘤𝘶𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘯 𝘥𝘢𝘵𝘰𝘴 𝘴𝘰𝘣𝘳𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘯𝘶𝘦𝘷𝘢 𝘥𝘦𝘮𝘢𝘳𝘤𝘢𝘤𝘪ó𝘯 𝘦𝘯 𝘔𝘢𝘥𝘳𝘪𝘥 𝘌𝘴𝘱𝘢ñ𝘢, 𝘲𝘶𝘦 𝘴𝘦 𝘳𝘢𝘵𝘪𝘧𝘪𝘤𝘢 𝘢 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢 𝘢 𝘭𝘢 𝘈𝘶𝘥𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘩𝘢𝘳𝘤𝘢𝘴 𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘴 𝘭𝘢 𝘥𝘦𝘴𝘢𝘱𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘤𝘪ó𝘯 𝘥𝘦 𝘚𝘢𝘯 𝘑𝘶𝘢𝘯 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘖𝘳𝘰. 𝘓𝘢 𝘤𝘢𝘱𝘪𝘵𝘢𝘭 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘤𝘰𝘳𝘳𝘦𝘨𝘪𝘮𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘰 𝘧𝘶𝘦 𝘵𝘳𝘢𝘴𝘭𝘢𝘥𝘢𝘥𝘰 𝘢𝘭 𝘴𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘶𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘙𝘰𝘴𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰, 𝘶𝘯 26 𝘥𝘦 𝘮𝘢𝘺𝘰 𝘥𝘦 1573. 𝘓𝘶𝘦𝘨𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘦𝘭𝘭𝘰; 𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘴𝘦ñ𝘰𝘳𝘦𝘴 𝘔𝘢𝘹 𝘈𝘯𝘵𝘰𝘯𝘪𝘰 𝘊á𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘦𝘴 𝘊𝘩𝘶𝘪, 𝘛𝘰𝘮𝘢𝘴 𝘔𝘢𝘮𝘢𝘯𝘪 𝘌𝘴𝘱𝘦𝘫𝘰 𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘦 𝘰𝘵𝘳𝘰𝘴 𝘱𝘰𝘣𝘭𝘢𝘥𝘰𝘳𝘦𝘴 𝘱𝘳𝘦𝘴𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘢𝘳𝘰𝘯 𝘶𝘯 𝘥𝘰𝘤𝘶𝘮𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘰 𝘢 𝘭𝘢 𝘮𝘶𝘯𝘪𝘤𝘪𝘱𝘢𝘭𝘪𝘥𝘢𝘥 𝘥𝘪𝘴𝘵𝘳𝘪𝘵𝘢𝘭 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰 𝘱𝘢𝘳𝘢 𝘶𝘯𝘢 𝘢𝘶𝘥𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘢. 𝘛𝘳𝘢𝘴 𝘶𝘯𝘢 𝘳𝘦𝘶𝘯𝘪ó𝘯 𝘥𝘦 𝘢𝘶𝘵𝘰𝘳𝘪𝘥𝘢𝘥𝘦𝘴 𝘺 𝘴𝘶 𝘱𝘰𝘣𝘭𝘢𝘤𝘪ó𝘯 𝘮𝘦𝘥𝘪𝘢𝘯𝘵𝘦 𝘶𝘯𝘢 𝘙𝘦𝘴𝘰𝘭𝘶𝘤𝘪ó𝘯 𝘔𝘶𝘯𝘪𝘤𝘪𝘱𝘢𝘭 𝘕° 004-1990-𝘔𝘋𝘊/𝘊. 𝘥𝘦 𝘧𝘦𝘤𝘩𝘢 10 𝘥𝘦 𝘮𝘢𝘺𝘰 𝘥𝘦 1990. 𝘚𝘦 𝘧𝘪𝘫𝘢 𝘭𝘢 𝘧𝘦𝘤𝘩𝘢 𝘱𝘢𝘳𝘢 𝘦𝘭 𝘧𝘦𝘴𝘵𝘦𝘫𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘴𝘶 𝘢𝘯𝘪𝘷𝘦𝘳𝘴𝘢𝘳𝘪𝘰 𝘤𝘢𝘥𝘢 26 𝘥𝘦 𝘮𝘢𝘺𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘤𝘢𝘥𝘢 𝘢ñ𝘰. 𝘴𝘪𝘦𝘯𝘥𝘰 𝘢𝘭𝘤𝘢𝘭𝘥𝘦 𝘚𝘢𝘵𝘶𝘳𝘯𝘪𝘯𝘰 𝘊𝘶𝘵𝘪𝘱𝘢 𝘔𝘢𝘮𝘢𝘯𝘪. 𝘚𝘪𝘯 𝘦𝘮𝘣𝘢𝘳𝘨𝘰, 𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘴𝘶𝘦ñ𝘰𝘴 𝘥𝘦 𝘱𝘳𝘰𝘷𝘪𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘢𝘭𝘪𝘻𝘢𝘤𝘪ó𝘯 𝘥𝘦𝘭 𝘥𝘪𝘴𝘵𝘳𝘪𝘵𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰, 𝘤𝘳𝘦𝘤𝘦 𝘦𝘭 𝘨𝘳𝘢𝘯 𝘢𝘯𝘩𝘦𝘭𝘰 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘤𝘪𝘶𝘥𝘢𝘥𝘢𝘯𝘰𝘴 𝘦𝘯 𝘴𝘦𝘳 𝘭𝘢 𝘧𝘶𝘵𝘶𝘳𝘢 “𝘗𝘳𝘰𝘷𝘪𝘯𝘤𝘪𝘢 𝘥𝘦 𝘈𝘳𝘪𝘤𝘰𝘮𝘢”, 𝘱𝘢𝘳𝘢 𝘯𝘢𝘥𝘪𝘦 𝘦𝘴 𝘦𝘹𝘵𝘳𝘢ñ𝘰, 𝘲𝘶𝘦 𝘭𝘢 𝘨𝘳𝘢𝘯 𝘊𝘢𝘳𝘢𝘣𝘢𝘺𝘢 𝘦𝘳𝘢 𝘴𝘶 𝘤𝘢𝘱𝘪𝘵𝘢𝘭 𝘊𝘳𝘶𝘤𝘦𝘳𝘰, 𝘢𝘥𝘦𝘮á𝘴 𝘦𝘴 𝘦𝘭 𝘤𝘭𝘢𝘮𝘰𝘳 𝘥𝘦 𝘭𝘰𝘴 𝘱𝘶𝘦𝘣𝘭𝘰𝘴, 𝘤𝘰𝘮𝘰: 𝘗𝘰𝘵𝘰𝘯𝘪, 𝘜𝘴𝘪𝘤𝘢𝘺𝘰𝘴, 𝘗𝘩𝘢𝘳𝘢, 𝘓𝘪𝘮𝘣𝘢𝘯𝘪, 𝘗𝘢𝘵𝘢𝘮𝘣𝘶𝘤𝘰 𝘦𝘯𝘵𝘳𝘦 𝘰𝘵𝘳𝘰𝘴.

𝐕𝐄𝐀 𝐋𝐀 𝐒𝐈𝐍𝐓𝐄𝐒𝐈𝐒 𝐇𝐈𝐒𝐓𝐎𝐑𝐈𝐂𝐀 𝐃𝐄𝐋 𝐃𝐈𝐒𝐓𝐑𝐈𝐓𝐎 𝐃𝐄 𝐂𝐑𝐔𝐂𝐄𝐑𝐎 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAQftrDG5AE&t=41s

𝐅𝐔𝐄𝐍𝐓𝐄𝐒 𝐁𝐈𝐁𝐋𝐈𝐎𝐆𝐑𝐀𝐅𝐈𝐂𝐀𝐒:

𝚂𝚊𝚖𝚞𝚎𝚕 𝙵𝚛𝚒𝚜𝚊𝚗𝚌𝚑𝚘 𝙿𝚒𝚗𝚎𝚍𝚊 (𝟷𝟿𝟽𝟶). Á𝚕𝚋𝚞𝚖 𝚍𝚎 𝙾𝚛𝚘, 𝚅𝚘𝚕. 𝚅, 𝙴𝚍𝚒𝚝𝚘𝚛𝚒𝚊𝚕 𝚃𝚒𝚝𝚒𝚌𝚊𝚌𝚊 – 𝙿𝚞𝚗𝚘

𝙱𝚎𝚗𝚓𝚊𝚖í𝚗 𝙳𝚞𝚎ñ𝚊𝚜 𝚃𝚘𝚟𝚊𝚛 (𝟷𝟿𝟽𝟻) “𝙴𝚗𝚜𝚊𝚢𝚘 𝙼𝚘𝚗𝚘𝚐𝚛á𝚏𝚒𝚌𝚘 𝚍𝚎 𝚕𝚊 𝙿𝚛𝚘𝚟𝚒𝚗𝚌𝚒𝚊 𝚍𝚎 𝙲𝚊𝚛𝚊𝚋𝚊𝚢𝚊, 𝙴𝚍𝚒𝚝𝚘𝚛𝚒𝚊𝚕 𝙶𝚛𝚞𝚙𝚘 – 𝙲𝚊𝚛𝚊𝚋𝚊𝚢𝚊

𝚁𝚎𝚟𝚒𝚜𝚝𝚊 𝚕𝚘𝚌𝚊𝚕 𝙲𝚛𝚞𝚌𝚎𝚛𝚒𝚗𝚊 “𝙾𝚙𝚒𝚗𝚒ó𝚗” 𝙷𝚒𝚜𝚝𝚘𝚛𝚒𝚊 𝚢 𝙲𝚞𝚕𝚝𝚞𝚛𝚊, 𝙴𝚍𝚒𝚝𝚘𝚛𝚒𝚊𝚕 𝚄𝚃𝙴𝙼𝚂 – 𝟷𝟿𝟿𝟹

𝚆𝚊𝚕𝚝𝚎𝚛 Á𝚟𝚒𝚕𝚊 𝚀𝚞𝚒𝚜𝚙𝚎 (𝟸𝟶𝟶𝟶) 𝙲𝚊𝚛𝚊𝚋𝚊𝚢𝚊 𝙷𝚒𝚜𝚝𝚘𝚛𝚒𝚊 𝙶𝚎𝚗𝚎𝚛𝚊𝚕 – 𝙴𝚍𝚒𝚝𝚘𝚛𝚒𝚊𝚕 “𝙴𝚕 𝚂𝚊𝚐𝚒𝚝𝚊𝚛𝚒𝚘”

𝙲𝚁𝚄𝙲𝙴𝚁𝙾: 𝙿𝚊𝚜𝚊𝚍𝚘, 𝚙𝚛𝚎𝚜𝚎𝚗𝚝𝚎 𝚢 𝙵𝚞𝚝𝚞𝚛𝚘. 𝙸𝙴𝚂 𝚂𝚒𝚎𝚛𝚟𝚘𝚜 𝚍𝚎 𝙳𝚒𝚘𝚜 – 𝟸𝟶𝟷𝟷

𝚁𝚎𝚟𝚒𝚜𝚝𝚊 “𝚁𝚒𝚓𝚌𝚑𝚊𝚛𝚢” 𝙱𝚘𝚕𝚎𝚝í𝚗 𝚊𝚕 𝚑𝚘𝚖𝚎𝚗𝚊𝚓𝚎 𝚍𝚎 𝟺𝟷𝟽 𝚊𝚗𝚒𝚟𝚎𝚛𝚜𝚊𝚛𝚒𝚘 𝚍𝚎 𝚕𝚊 𝚏𝚞𝚗𝚍𝚊𝚌𝚒ó𝚗 𝚍𝚎 𝙲𝚛𝚞𝚌𝚎𝚛𝚘 𝚎𝚍𝚒𝚌𝚒ó𝚗 𝙽° 𝟷 𝙳𝚒𝚛𝚎𝚌𝚌𝚒ó𝚗 𝙼𝚊𝚡 𝙰𝚗𝚝𝚘𝚗𝚒𝚘 𝙲á𝚌𝚎𝚛𝚎𝚜 – 𝙲𝚘𝚛𝚛𝚎𝚌𝚌𝚒ó𝚗 𝚃𝚘𝚖𝚊𝚜 𝙼𝚊𝚖𝚊𝚗𝚒 𝙴𝚜𝚙𝚎𝚓𝚘

𝙷𝚒𝚜𝚝𝚘𝚛𝚒𝚊 𝚍𝚎 𝙲𝚊𝚛𝚊𝚋𝚊𝚢𝚊 – 𝙼𝚞𝚗𝚒𝚌𝚒𝚙𝚊𝚕𝚒𝚍𝚊𝚍 𝙿𝚛𝚘𝚟𝚒𝚗𝚌𝚒𝚊𝚕 𝚍𝚎 𝙲𝚊𝚛𝚊𝚋𝚊𝚢𝚊 “𝚄𝚗𝚞 𝚃𝚊𝚔𝚊𝚢 𝚁𝚒𝚝𝚞𝚊𝚕 𝚊𝚕 𝙰𝚐𝚞𝚊, 𝚎𝚗 𝙴𝚡𝚝𝚒𝚗𝚌𝚒ó𝚗, 𝙲𝚘𝚖𝚞𝚗𝚒𝚍𝚊𝚍 𝚍𝚎 𝙾𝚛𝚞𝚛𝚘. 𝚃𝙴𝚂𝙸𝚂 𝚄𝙽𝙰 – 𝙿𝚞𝚗𝚘, 𝚙𝚛𝚎𝚜𝚎𝚗𝚝𝚊𝚍𝚘 𝚙𝚘𝚛 𝚁𝚘𝚐𝚎𝚛 𝚂𝚘𝚗𝚌𝚌𝚘 𝙼𝚞𝚕𝚕𝚒𝚜𝚊𝚌𝚊

𝚂í𝚗𝚝𝚎𝚜𝚒𝚜 𝙷𝚒𝚜𝚝ó𝚛𝚒𝚌𝚊 𝚍𝚎𝚕 𝚍𝚒𝚜𝚝𝚛𝚒𝚝𝚘 𝚍𝚎 𝙲𝚛𝚞𝚌𝚎𝚛𝚘, 𝚎𝚜𝚌𝚛𝚒𝚝𝚘 𝚙𝚘𝚛 𝚎𝚕 𝙻𝚒𝚌. 𝚂𝚊𝚋𝚒𝚗𝚘 𝙰𝚙𝚊𝚣𝚊 𝙲𝚘𝚢𝚕𝚊, 𝙲𝚛𝚞𝚌𝚎𝚛𝚘 – 𝟸𝟶𝟸𝟶. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAQftrDG5AE&t=18s

𝙴𝚏𝚎𝚖é𝚛𝚒𝚍𝚎𝚜 𝚁𝚎𝚐𝚒𝚘𝚗𝚊𝚕 𝙿𝚞𝚗𝚘 – 𝙴𝚜𝚌𝚛𝚒𝚋𝚎: 𝚂𝚊𝚋𝚒𝚗𝚘 𝙰𝚙𝚊𝚣𝚊 𝙲𝚘𝚢𝚕𝚊. 𝙰𝚛𝚌𝚑𝚒𝚟𝚘𝚜 𝙳𝚒𝚊𝚛𝚒𝚘 𝚁𝚎𝚐𝚒𝚘𝚗𝚊𝚕 “𝙻𝚘𝚜 𝙰𝚗𝚍𝚎𝚜”. 𝙿𝚞𝚗𝚘 (𝟸𝟶𝟷𝟽 – 𝟸𝟶𝟸𝟶).

Pinceladas de la historia de Crucero. Autor: Guido Z. Parra Chui. 1ra. Edición, Crucero – 2026.

𝐅𝐔𝐄𝐍𝐓𝐄𝐒 𝐕𝐈𝐑𝐓𝐔𝐀𝐋𝐄𝐒:

https://es.scribd.com/document/440894163/MONOGRAFIA-CRUCERO-CARABAYA-pdf# https://www.municarabaya.gob.pe/portal/carabaya/historia/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gk0-u6UrcdU

https://docplayer.es/56071373-Universidad-nacional-del-altiplano-puno.html